Karahien
General Info Karahien is directly descended from Afrikaans, and is spoken many years in the future by a growing community outside of Karasburg, Namibia. While Afrikaans was spoken by about 11% of the population in 2015, the isolation of speakers led to rapid evolution of the language and the eventual designation as a separate language, rather than a dialect of Afrikaans. The language has kept evolving since, and eventually spread back to South Africa, where it settled once again in the Northern Cape. In Karahien Karahien direkdevertsokt van Afrikaans, en is jetset do an kvikentenedelpo bvit Karasburg. Is there a case system? While Afrikaans doesn't have case declension, this language aquired a dative when people stopped making a distinction between on baok and onbaok, and other similar constructions with other words.Therefore, it is still technically a prepositional phrase, but for all intents and purposes it is a dative case, because it came to be used even when the preposition to was not needed. Similar to this is the instrumental case, as well as the locative and genitive. Phonology Sound Changes Sound Changes From Afrikaans *''P - Plosive '' *''F - Fricative '' *''V - Vovel '' *''C - Consonant'' *''L - Liquid'' *''N - Nasal'' *''M - Non-Plosive/Affricate Consonant'' *''A - Affricate'' *''X - Any Sound'' *''Q - Affricate, Plosive, Fricative, Nasal'' *''R - Rhotic'' First and foremost, distinctions between long and short sounds are eliminated. Some sounds were eliminated and replaced by others. Conflicts with these new sounds are quickly resolved *''m > n'' *''ʒ > ʝ'' *''ʃ > ɬ'' *''sχ > ɬ'' *''χ > ç'' *''h > t͡ʃ'' Next, vowels undergo significant changes. '''Among these is that vowels before /r/ become long and the /r/ changes to /ə/' *''ie > i / _r *''ie > ai / (b, d)_ (also grants immunity from further sound changes)'' *''ie > iə (also grants immunity from further sound changes)'' *''i > ai / #_'' *''ɵu > ɤ'' *''o > ɤ / _P'' *''o > ɔ'' *''u > ɤ ! _#'' *''u > ɔ'' *''VR > V:ə / _C'' Next, sound changes occur through different pronunciation of certain consonants and occasionally changing order of sounds *''s > Ø / #_P'' *''ig > ai'' *''g > dʒ / #_'' *''g > ʝ / _(i,e)'' *''b > v / #_'' *''s > ts / #_V'' *''Fs > ts'' *''QVL > QLV (Q cannot be t or d)'' ' Finally, some voicing changes *''s > z / V_V'' *''s > z / V_#'' *''f > v / #_'' *''v > f / #_C'' *''t > d / _R'' *''g > k'' Final K becomes ejective. *''k > k' / _#'' ' I-Umlaut I-Umlaut occurs when the sounds e''', '''o, au, and ai occur as the second to last vowel, and /i/ is the final sound. The vowel is always written as its new sound is. Rules for this are as follows: *e » i *o » e *au » ai O-Umlaut O-Umlaut occurs when the sounds i, e, '''or '''ai occur as the second to last vowel, and /o/, /os/, or /on/ is the final sound. This does not serve as many grammatical purposes and is purely vowel assimilation, and as so is more rare. *ai » au *e » o *i » i Consonants Vowels Writing System p will often morph into p` at the end of a word, but this is not always the case. The same goes for t and t`. These forms are hardly ever explicitly declared, but can be with a ` Grammatical Overview Nouns General Info Nouns inflect to case (Technically the merging of prepositions and nouns) and number, but there is no gramatical gender, and definitiveness is indicated through articles. In english the second two roles are covered by either the definite article 'the' or the demonstrative adjectives this or that. In Karaxien they are always done through articles, equivalent to either the demonstrative adjectives or the article. There are two classes of nouns, with Class I ending in vowels, and Class II ending in consonants. There are 4 degress of definitiveness, defined as follows: *Indefinite: Speaking of arbitrary instance(s) of what is being referred to **'Some rabbits' can only be killed with hand grenades *Definite: Speaking of specific instance(s) of what is being referred to **'The rabbit' is evil *Personal: Speaking of specific instance(s), bearing a personal significance to the 1st person **The/this rabbit is my friend *Interpersonal / Impersonal: Speaking of specific instance(s), bearing a personal significance to either the 2nd or the 3rd person **The/that rabbit is her friend Nouns are pluralized in two ways: noun forms that end in vowels (Class II) are pluralized with an -s, while noun forms that end in consonants (Class II) are slightly more complicated. An -i is added to the end, and this sometimes induces an umlaut on the previous vowel. The vowels are written as their new sounds These vowel changes are as follows in Karahien: *o > e *e > o *ao > ai *ai > ao Case As said before, the lanuage didn't magically regain case from afrikaans, but instead certain prepositions started being attached to the noun, forming more or less a prepositional phrase. NOTE: When a personal pronoun is used, instead of attaching the preposition to form a case, the preposition is used by itself before the personal pronoun. Class I - Edjo: Idiot Class II - Orvaod: Jungle Articles The articles used to indicate definitiveness are as follows (they can also be used as accusative pronouns): *Indefinite : An (nan) *Definite : Dai (dïn) *Presentable : Etsai (etsain) *Inter/impersonal: Allai (allain) Verbs Verbs do not conjugate to person, however the number of the subject is relevant to conjugation. Most verbs conjugate fully and distinctly to number, and tense Verbs are formed by using the infinitive for present tense singular subjects, and for plural subjects, when the verb ends in a vowel, an -s is added, but when it ends in a consonant, an -e is added. In addition, two verbs, is and lop have special forms its and tsop meaning it is and it goes/it is going''respectively Conjugation Verbs only conjugate to present and preterite. The imperitive is formed by adding' -tte''' when the verb ends in a vowel or a liquid, and '-ette' otherwise. Participles The present participle is formed with '-ente', while the past participle is formed by placing ja-''' before the verb conjugated to the preterite. Progressive Tenses The progressive tenses are formed by placing the past participle after the verb '''be, conjugated in the present for the present for the present progressive, or the preterite to form the imperfect. There are perfect progressive tenses I have been eating or I had been eating, formed by placing the present participle after the verb Tje/Tjes for the present perfect and Tjet/Tjit. The conditional progressive, I would be eating is formed by conjugating the verb lop to the preterite tense and placing the present participle after it. The future progessives, I will be eating and I am going to be eating are formed by conjugating the verb lop to the present tense and placing the present participle after it. Perfect tenses The present perfect tense is formed by placing Tje'''or '''Tjes '''before the past participle, while the pluperfect is formed by placing '''Tjet or Tjit before the same. Future Tenses There are two future tenses, the simple future and the near future. The simple future, the equivalent of I will ___, is formed by placing the present tense form of the verb be before the infinitive verb, while the near future, the equivalent of I am going to ___, is formed by placing the present tense form of the verb lop` before the infinitive verb. When forming the conditional, the simple future is used as the base for a simple conditional, while the near future base is used as a progressive conditional. Conditional Tense The simple conditional, I would ___ is formed like a past future, conjugating the verb be in the preterite tense, and placing it before the infinitive verb. The progressive conditional is formed much the same way, only with the verb lop` in the preterite tense. Adjectives There are no attributive adjectives because they are fused onto the noun. Predicative adjectives are entirely archaic and are only used in literature. The common practice when speaking using predicative adjectives is to attach the adjective to an appropriate noun. For instance: *Preso - Person, Kod - Good, Djelaik - happy, Dinn - thing #Dä is Djelaik'prezon - ''S/he is happy. #Its 'Ko'dinn - It is good. Adjectives often have the ending '''laik. Adverbs Adverbs are usually formed by placing lek after their respective adjective. They almost always follow the verb when used by themselves, although a common practice is to use them in a similar manner to adjectives, and attach them to the verb. In this caise they generally lose the lek Pronouns Personal Pronouns Posessive pronouns Syntax Word Order The general word order is SIVD (subject indirect verb direct). Some literature chooses to ignore this, especially poetry, where word order is frequently manipulated for rhyme. Omitting subjects In sentences where there are multiple clauses with the same subject, the subject pronoun (or noun) must be included in the first clause, while subsequent clauses with the same subject may omitt it. Sentials Sential arguments use the form da for that whether the sential is a subject or an object. The relative that is discussed later in the relative section. In sentials, the singular form of the verb is always used regardless of the subject. Existentials Existentials of the form there be are formed by using the verb pedis instead of is, while constructions such as there run two creeks side by side are formed by placing per- 'or '''pe-' in front of the verb, following the rules of conflicting consonants. Introducing New Clauses The subjunctives clauses are formed paraphrastically by stating the main subject and the verb, followed by a sential argument. When subjunctive, sential arguments are never used as subjects. Other new clauses, such as if statements, are formed by using the introductory word for the new clause, then a normal subject-verb combination. if he eats breakfast, he will eat cereal '''Az tje jid onbet, is jid kran. Relative clauses are somewhat complex. When the subclause is an object, the relative pronoun vitj is used. When the subclause is a subject, the relative pronoun is dat`. Comparatives and Superlatives Comparatives are formed by placing nier before the adjective they are modifying, while superlatives are formed the same way, only with an article preceeding the nier. The same goes for djer, less/least Reflexives There is no specific reflexive pronoun in Karahien, but instead, to indicate reflexiveness, transitive verbs are used with the same object and subject. Therefore, they killed the dog means exactly what it says, but they killed them means they killed themselves Passive Voice The passive voice is formed by placing the verb "to be" in front of the past participle. This functions as the mirror opposite of the present perfect and pluperfect tenses. Negating Paraphrastics When negating a paraphrastic construction, such as you shall not count, the ni always follows the final part of the construction, as opposed to in english, where it is in the middle. For example, the translation of the above is Je lop tel ni Otvandifrad The word Otvandifrad is the only predicative adjective that has survived and sees common use. It means out of the question or right out, and is only used predicatively; it can not be synthesized with a noun. Lexicon Dai Karahileksekon Example text The Holy Hand Grenade English Yes, of course! The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch! 'Tis one of the sacred relics Brother Maynard carries with him! Brother Maynard! Bring up the Holy Hand Grenade! How does it, uh... how does it work? I know not, my liege. Consult the Book of Armaments! Armaments, Chapter Two, Verses Nine to Twenty-One. "And Saint Atila raised the hand grenade up on high, saying, 'Oh, Lord, bless this thy hand grenade that with it thou mayest blow thy enemies to tiny bits, in thy mercy.' And the Lord did grin, and people did feast upon the lambs, and sloths, and carp, and anchovies, and orangutans, and breakfast cereals, and fruit bats, and large -- Skip a bit, Brother. "And the Lord spake, saying, 'First shalt thou take out the Holy Pin. Then, shalt thou count to three, no more, no less. Three shalt be the number thou shalt count, and the number of the counting shalt be three. Four shalt thou not count, nor either count thou two, excepting that thou then proceed to three. Five is right out. Once the number three, being the third number, be reached, then lobbest thou thy Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch towards thou foe.'" Amen. Amen. Right! One... two... five! Three, sir! Three! Karaxien Jah, natorlek`, dai antiakllelaiktjankranat! Its van dai orblitsoni vitj Majnard dra net. Majnard! dratte dai llelaiktjankranat! tjao...uh....tjao vonksie di? Ets ni vied. Konslotjertte allai vapenbaok`! Vaponi, tjovsdok` 2, verzi 9-21: En Atila vertjoket dai tjankranat, tsente «Lord, tsientte etsai tjankranat, tsodat net din je kanonplov on klainsteki jer fjandi, in jer kenade. En dai Lord krint en dai presos jidet dai lan, en litjidi, en krapi, en antjovi, en orandjotani, en onbetkrani, en fruteflernesi, en-- » Slante klainstek, Bro. «En dai Lord tset, tsiente 'Erst, je lop fervidre dai llelaikspeld, daist, je lop` tel on 3. Ni nier, ni djer. 3 lop` be dai noner vitj je lop` tel, en dai telnoner lop` be 3. je lop` tel ni 4, aovni lop` tel 2, vetjalv tsodat je vortkan on 3. 5 ais otvandifrad. Vanier je berek` dai nonen 3, dat` ais dai 3r noner, kotte allai antiakllelaiktjankranat on jer fjand'.» Amen Amen 1...2...5! 3, sern! 3! Category:Languages Category:August Germlang Challenge Category:Germanic conlangs